Analyze content#

Before we start, let’s better understand my definitions of knowledge. There are several differing definitions of knowledge, so knowing my views will help you better understand this step. I use two definitions or “knowledge types” in this book. These are:

Knowledge as stored. The brain stores and works with facts, principles, skills, procedures and other knowledge in different ways. This influences how you learn each of these knowledge types.
Knowledge as used. Knowledge is also the ability to express or use information through action. This ability may range from unconscious use, such as an automatic skill, through to finding and using some information in a book or reference manual.

Analyzing content involves breaking down your material into chunks you can classify according to these two definitions. Once you’ve done this, the task of choosing techniques becomes easier. Let’s first understand these two knowledge types separately, and then combine them to gain a clear picture of how you analyze your content for long-term memorizing.

Learning changes the structure of your brain

Once we are adults, the neurons in our brain don’t move that much. When we learn though, the networks between the neurons change and expand. How does the brain achieve this? The networks change and expand through a process called “Synaptic Change.” Synapses are like muscles, in that repetition is needed to make the change that embeds learning. Continuing exercise is needed to maintain the learning. These similarities between muscles and synapses partly led me to use athletics in the “Memletics” name. The way the networks change depends on whether it’s a short duration memory or a long-term memory:

For short duration memories (from a few seconds to a few hours): These memories change the strength of the signals between neurons. The sending neuron changes the signal strength, the receiving neuron changes its sensitivity, or both.

For longer term memories (from a day to a lifetime): These memories change the number of connections between one neuron and another, or change which neurons a particular neuron connects to, or both. What interests us is how short duration memories move to long term memories. The basic steps of this process are:

The brain places the memory into an area called “working memory” first. The memory only changes the signaling strength between neurons.

At various times, these memories move to longer-term memory structures throughout the brain. The hippocampus, a small region in the lower middle of the brain, plays a key role for many memories. It organizes and then distributes parts of those memories to the proper places in the brain. Neurons in these locations start to grow and change connections.

Repeated exposures to the experiences, and our recall of those, reinforce those memories we wish to memorize. More neuron connections grow and change.

Understand the knowledge storage types#

I use a scheme of five basic storage types that are easy to understand. These are facts, concepts and principles, sensory-motor skills, procedures, and higher-order skills. When you analyze content, you assign each chunk to one of these five types.

Facts. Facts at a basic level are associations between two (or more) things. Examples include capitals of states and countries, the names of animals, and the names of the parts of an aircraft. You display competence by being able to state the fact.
Concepts and principles. Concepts are a way of grouping, classifying or defining the features of objects, behaviors, or events. Principles are relationships between concepts. Don’t get too caught up in the differences between these two definitions. Just recognize the knowledge types that fall in this area. Examples of concepts include symmetry, equilibrium, force, conifer and justice. Examples of principles include the relationship between force, mass and acceleration, or that lift is a result of airflow, airfoil shape and angle of attack. You show understanding of concepts and principles by being able to classify or group related facts, provide examples, or explain how or why a particular behavior or event occurs.
Sensory-motor skills. Sensory-motor skills involve some co-ordination of physical movement using sensory perception. Examples of this knowledge type include many sports, keeping a car on the road, and physical control of an aircraft. You display competence in this knowledge type by performance of the skill within satisfactory bounds.
Procedures. Procedures involve carrying out a series of ordered steps, usually with some decisions at different points. Examples include starting a car, providing first aid, or landing an aircraft. Competency in this knowledge type involves correct execution of the procedure.
Higher order (cognitive) skills. These skills involve higher cognitive activity. These skills include problem solving, decision-making and judgment, self-monitoring and assessment, critical thinking, reflection, communication, collaboration and creativity.

Understand knowledge usage types#

You next consider how you use the information you are learning. The question to ask is “do I need to recall from memory, partially or fully, how to use this information?” Three categories help me think about how I use information:

Automatic knowledge. I must be able to recall or use this information from memory, with little or no external prompting.
Working knowledge. I need to know how to apply the information, however I may use external references to help me do so.
Supporting knowledge. This information is useful to know, however I just need to know how to find it later.

Here are some examples of these usage types for both presentation and aviation training. First are some presentation training examples:

Usage Type Examples

Automatic Posture, gestures, reading or recalling notes, eye contact, using equipment and controlling nervousness.

Working Planning and writing the presentation, principles of effective presentation, preparation of materials and setup of equipment.

Supporting Good quotes, anecdotes and persuasive words.#

Here are some aviation training examples:

Usage Type Examples

Automatic Control of the aircraft, airspeeds, radio calls, circuit procedures and critical checklists.

Working Preflight planning, some checklists, finding and using radio frequencies and correct oil temperature and pressures.

Supporting Principles of lift and drag, how weather works, the internal workings of an engine and the history of aviation.#

Use the knowledge types to analyze your content#

Now that you understand the two key knowledge types (as stored and as used), let’s see how you can apply them. Break down your training material into chunks, and assign each chunk a storage and usage type. The following table can help this step:

Knowledge types\ Storage table

Facts Concepts and Motor-sensory Procedures Higher-order principles skills Skills

Usage types Automatic FC-A CP-A MS-A PD-A HO-A

Working FC-W CP-W MS-W PD-W HO-W

Supporting FC-S CP-S PD-S#

What do the abbreviations in the table mean?

The first two letters of the abbreviation is the storage type, the third letter is the usage type. So for example, FC-W marks a chunk of knowledge as a fact, for which you need a working usage. Why are some boxes in the table shaded? These storage types rely on memorized skills. If you use an aid, you are practicing less of a skill and more of a procedure.

Draw your own version of this table on a large sheet, and sort the major chunks of your topic into the cells. Alternatively, label your material using the abbreviations shown in the cells above.

If you find you want to assign a chunk of knowledge into two or more categories, try to break the chunk down further. Nearly all human activities use one or more of these five storage types.

You can use these knowledge types to help you plan and rank what you need to memorize versus when you can use an external reference. This approach can also help you decide when to use longer-term repetition techniques.

You may need to change your rankings because you temporarily need higher recall. For example, you need to pass an exam or test at the end of a course, without the use of external aids. Keep in mind, though, your goal is to perform an activity for the long term, not necessarily to pass an arbitrary exam at the end of the course. You may want to consider altering your rankings after you finish the course.