Common concept maps#

{#_Toc99152333 .anchor}Common concept maps

In this module we explore some common types of concept maps. In these maps you will often see similarities with the basic maps you saw in the first module. Each map has strengths and weaknesses for various types of information, and I discuss this in the descriptions. Like the last module, there are also some exercises at the end to test your knowledge.

Keep in mind you can also create your own style by combining elements of any maps. For example, Mind Maps use color extensively, so perhaps you could apply color to Flowcharts to identify differing types of steps.

The concept maps we examine in this module include:

Mind Maps. Created by Tony Buzan, these maps are probably the most well-known form of concept map.
IHMC concept maps. Created by educators, these maps are excellent for modeling knowledge.
Flowchart concept maps. These maps model the steps to follow to achieve some goal or decision.
Fishbone Diagrams. Also known as “cause and effect” or “Ishikawa” diagrams, these maps help you understand factors contributing to some problem or issue.
Pictorial concept maps. These maps use a pictorial or image form to help you understand the material.
Mandala concept maps. Mandala maps are usually circular and have centuries of tradition behind them. They’ve been adapted for modern use.

[ ]{.mark}Mind Maps#

Mind Maps® is a trademark of the Buzan Organization*, Ltd. We have no affiliation with this organization. We reference “mind maps” as the output of the diagramming technique commonly known as “Mind Mapping”.*

Mind maps engage multiple mental domains that help make them interesting to the visual parts of our brain. This helps make them easier to remember. Here is an example of a mind map, and its topic is creating mind maps!

A mind map is a tree structure with one trunk and many branches. Mind maps expand on spider maps. A key difference between a spider concept map and a mind map is that a mind map doesn’t use labeled links. Each branch combines the concept and relationship.

Mind maps stimulate the visual abilities of the mind. This means your brain can understand and remember a mind map much more effectively. Mind maps are rational and artistic. They are logically ordered and yet spontaneously expressive. They’re examples of “organic thinking”. That is, like a tree, a central idea (the trunk) branches off in many different directions. Those branches then divide into finer branches of details and associations.

The benefits of mind mapping are many. First, a mind map clearly shows how key concepts link to the main idea. This helps you integrate material more quickly. Integration means you’ll be able to recall and review concepts more effectively. Second, mind maps are flexible; you can easily add new information with a minimum of trouble. Third, they help you to plan routes, make choices, and allow you to know where you’re going with a concept and where you’ve been. Fourth, one mind map holds large amount of information/data, and it’s all available at a single glance. This helps you study and learn much more efficiently. Fifth, mind maps are interesting to look at this helps make it easier for you to the retain information in them.

Creating mind maps#

Mind maps use color, layout, text and other elements to help distinguish concepts and relationships. The mind map example above has six main branches, all in different colors to make it easier for the viewer to distinguish among the main ideas. Each branch has a simple label (“Use images, Use color”, etc.) to make it easy to understand the actions to take. Then each main branch divides into sub-branches to further explain actions to take (“Use images throughout mind map”, etc.) Let’s explore each part of the mind mapping technique in more detail.

Use images. To start a mind map, represent the main topic with an image (square, rectangle or whatever works for you). Place the image in the center of the mind map. Use two or more colors in building the image. In our example, the main topic is “Creating Mind Maps.” The black text is on top of a gray rounded rectangular image. Use images in place of text where you have them or add them around the text to highlight. You might like to use your own drawings. Use them to highlight key points. Also, use clear and related images.
Use text. Be sure to use only one key word or idea per line. Also, keep your phrases short and break lists into separate points (Point 1, Point 2, etc.). Write or type the central topic in the image in the middle of your map. Use upper or lower case letters to make the topic stand out. Color the letters to make the words stand out; e.g., white on grey, etc. Make sure each word/image stands alone and is on its own line.
Use layout. All lines flow out from the central image. Beginning at the central image, the central lines radiate out like tree branches—they start out thick and become thinner as they spread outward. The lines should be the same length as the word and/or image. Use a hierarchy with main ideas towards the middle. Sub-points should branch from these main ideas (no more than 5-7 sub-points). Also, when needed use a numerical order (1, 2, 3) and work from the top down with a left to right order. Vary the size and color of the text, images, and branches to differentiate them and create visual interest. Don’t forget to use spacing in an organized and appropriate manner. If you have an auto-layout capability in your software, use that to create spacing.
Use color. Use color to highlight key branches. Color-code the lines, text and images according to your preferences. Use colorful images as well. Remember, the map should reflect your personal style and modes of thinking!
Use and redraw mind maps. Print your mind maps out and add more to them. Redraw them to learn the content or to refresh your memory of the key concepts of a subject.
Other points. Connect ideas on different branches using lines and arrows. Also, use codes to help you remember ideas. Again, use your own personal style to create a more effective learning experience in your mind map. Finally, use floating text (not connected to a branch) to highlight ideas and create visual interest.

Remember, a mind map is an organic creation! You should capture all the ideas you (or others) have, then edit, and re-organize until you’ve created a mind map that captures exactly what you want to remember.

Using mind maps#

Mind maps are very effective tools to use in brainstorming because they promote an inherently creative process, and brainstorming requires the free association of different ideas to form new ideas and concepts. With mind maps, individuals or groups can brainstorm ideas in a visually appealing and colorful format that stimulates the production of different ideas. Mind maps encourage creativity because they have an open-ended nature. This stimulates the brain to make new connections. New connections lead to new ideas!

You can also use a mind map for keeping notes, for developing a concept, or for getting an overview of an activity. Many activities can benefit from using the mind mapping technique.

To create a mind map, write down the central problem or idea you want to expand on. As you think of ideas, add branches to the central idea. Decide if these branches are major ideas and deserve their own branch or belong to an existing branch. At this point, don’t worry about format—just get your ideas down. It’s the creative phase, so scribble out ideas, move topics around, re-draw the map, and put links between ideas. In other words, do whatever gets your creative juices flowing to generate as many ideas as possible.

The very act of building a mind map helps you summarize any topic because it forces you to “cut to the chase”; i.e., focus on the essential elements of a subject. For example, while reading a book, highlight important points and ideas. Then, go back and create a mind map for each chapter. Pull out the main ideas and transfer them to your map. If you like, you can organize your map and ideas along the same lines as the chapter contents.

Mind maps are great for organizing any kind of information—books, letters, articles, meetings, etc. That’s because they organize information into a form your brain finds easy to understand, and this makes it easier for you to remember important content. Use your summaries of content to create “master maps”. The master maps should link to your references; e.g., more detailed mind maps, articles, books, files, websites, etc.

Example of a mind map#

You can see another example of a mind map below. The mind map consists of a central word or concept. In this case, it’s about oil your car uses. Around the central word, there are several main ideas that relate to that word. Then each branch further divides into sub-branches. These branches list more information about oil. You can keep refining this map until it provides the information you need to remember about oil.

IHMC concept maps#

IHMC (Institute for Human and Machine Cognition) started in 1990 as an interdisciplinary research unit of the University of West Florida. Its research focuses on the broad concept of “human-centered” computing.

An IHMC concept map shows the complexities of a concept at a single glance. When you look at an IHMC map, you can quickly see the relationships between parts of a concept. The map also allows you to see commonalities, discrepancies, and different meanings and may suggest new ways of approaching a problem or situation. Ultimately, an IHMC concept map promotes better learning and application of knowledge.

The fundamental parts of an IHMC concept map are two or more concepts linked by relationships. We’ve seen this idea of labeled relationships in previous maps, however let’s cover them in more detail here. Here’s a simple example:

Concepts are usually events or objects. In our example, the key concept is water, and the immediate subordinate concept is molecules. The relationship between these two concepts is “is composed of.” IHMC calls the relationship a “proposition.”

Of course, water is a complex subject so additional subordinate concepts are required to explain the concept. These subordinate concepts are: 1) water’s importance to living things; 2) its composition; and 3) its various states and the examples of those states. Using this simple approach, you can build up a detailed concept map on water like the one below.

Because the concept map is a visual image, it’s much easier and quicker to grasp the information the map creator is trying to provide. It’s easier to understand the creator’s view of water and related concepts than it would be to read a long description.

Some general guidelines for creating IHMC concept maps are:

Try to work from top to bottom. The main concepts should be at the top with subordinate concepts below them. It’s acceptable though to link across and up the map.
Keep your audience in mind. In our example above, some people might understand what a molecule is whereas others won’t. If your audience doesn’t understand what a molecule is, you might need to expand that concept as well.
You can link more than two concepts together. See the “can be” link under “states” in the example above.
You can use symbols instead of words. If a symbol better represents a concept, feel free to use it.
Use cross-linking. Feel free to link between parts of your map; for example, the “determines” link between “motion” and “states” above.
Try not to overlap links. If this occurs, you may need to re-arrange your diagram.

The “ozone” map below is another example of a concept map. It shows the complex relationships between ozone (a gas in the atmosphere), the earth, and human beings. With one glance, you can see that “bad” ozone creates smog and may contribute to global warming while “good” ozone is destroyed by CFCs and chlorine. You can see how powerful such a map can be in helping you to learn complex material.

While viewing the map below, did you notice that it’s not meeting an IHMC guideline? Which guideline is it not meeting?

If you picked up the fact that it’s not working from the top to the bottom, you’re right!

Here’s another example of an IHMC map that models a business topic—managerial decision making. Read the following paragraph about this subject:

A systematic process helps to solve business and economic problems. Business and economic problems can be analyzed by use of a model. Variables and factors help to define that model. The model is quantitatively described using mathematical formulas, which, in turn, provide answers that lead to a course of action. Concurrently, a systematic process helps to solve business and economic problems, which are analyzed with mathematical representations. A systematic process also requires the definition of variables and factors, which are combined in the mathematical representations. As stated earlier, the mathematical representations provide answers. The answers lead to a course of action.

When you read that paragraph, you may have asked yourself, “What exactly did that mean?” In fact, you may have had to read it more than once to get an idea of its meaning. Well, look at the following concept map to see if it helps you understand the topic!

I believe the IHMC concept map provides you with a clearer overall picture of the elements involved in managerial decision-making than did the text paragraph. By viewing the map, you probably understood the concept much easier and faster!

For more examples of IHMC concept maps, visit http://cmap.ihmc.us/

Flowchart concept maps#

Flowcharts show how one concept or event leads to another. Our example below shows a basic flowchart for painting a house. The flowchart explains a series of tasks that you have to perform and decisions that have to be made at certain points. For example, after cleaning all painted surfaces, the flowchart asks the question: Is there peeling paint? If the answer is Yes, then you need to scrape off the peeling/flaking paint before proceeding to the next decision point. If the answer is No, then you proceed directly to the next decision point: Do areas need caulking? Again, depending upon the answer you give, you will either remove old caulk and apply new caulk or you will proceed directly to the next decision point.

To make sure the flow of a concept is clear, flowcharts follow certain guidelines for the symbols to use. For example, the rounded rectangle or “Terminal” indicates the Start and End of a flowchart. A normal rectangle or square (“Processing”) shows data, information or arithmetic operations. “Clean painted surfaces” is an example of processing in the sample flowchart. The diamond shape is a “Decision point”. It represents an action or operation where there are two (or more) possible alternatives—Yes or No. The first decision point above involves peeling paint. If there is peeling paint, then “Yes”, you have to scrape it off before proceeding to the next decision point (Area need caulking?). If there is no peeling paint, then the alternative is “No, the paint does not need to be scraped”, and you can proceed directly to the next decision point. The lines and arrows indicate the flow and direction of the steps in a flowchart.

Below is a diagram that lists the symbols you can use when constructing a flowchart. I didn’t use all the symbols in the example, but you will find them in more complex concept maps of this type.

Here are guidelines for constructing a basic flowchart:

The flowchart should have a single main line of control, which connects START and END (or STOP).
It should have lines of control that enter symbols only from the top and leave symbols only from the bottom.
Avoid crossed or intersecting lines to maintain clarity in a flowchart. Usually, you can remove crossed lines by re-arranging the flowchart. However, if you can’t avoid crossing a line, use a “line hop.” A line hop is simply an arc in the line going over the crossed line.
Use an IF…THEN construct in your flowchart. For example, if the paint is peeling, then scrape the peeling paint. If the paint is not peeling, then proceed to caulking, etc. See the example on the previous page.
An IF…THEN diamond should have two, and only two, branches. The branch that goes to the right must eventually return (with an arrowhead) to the same line of control that its decision diamond lies on. All branches from a decision diamond should have a label indicating Yes/No (or True/False).
You can have more than two lines coming from a diamond, representing different options from the same decision. It’s often easier though if you keep the decisions to binary (yes/no or true/false) decisions.
A basic flowchart should have lines of control that proceed up a page only when in a loop. Usually all other lines go down or to the right.

Flowcharts for decision making#

A decision flowchart is an arrangement of questions and answers that help you make an appropriate decision based on certain inputs. These can be very simple or complex as the situation warrants.

On the right is a simple example to give you an idea of how a decision flowchart works. In this situation, a golfer needs to make a decision—whether to play a round of golf according to weather conditions. This flowchart offers three decisions for deciding whether to play golf or not. Of course, if you’re a golfer or any other type of sportsperson, you make these decisions in your head all the time. For new or non golfers, it might be interesting to learn that many golfers will play when it’s raining, but not when it’s windy.

One key point for decision flowcharts is “efficiency”. Place decisions that have the greatest impact at the top of the flowchart. Taking the golf flowchart above, if most days are windy in your area, it makes sense to have the wind decision at the top. If, however, your local weather is mostly hot and humid, then it makes sense to have the “hot and humid” decision at the top.

Decision flowcharts are very similar to the standard flowcharts above. Use vertical lines of control. Use a horizontal line only as a right branch off a decision diamond. The chart proceeds down the page unless there is a right branch off a decision. Only a branch may go to the right, all lines of control should be vertical.

Fishbone concept maps#

Kaoru Ishikawa invented the “fishbone” concept map. Some people know these maps as “cause and effect” or “Ishikawa” diagrams. One of the fishbone map’s great uses is to help you search for the root causes of a problem and compare the relative importance of different causes of the problem. Ishikawa originally developed this type of diagram for use in the Kawasaki shipyards, but you can apply this format to a wide range of appropriate problems.

Essentially, fishbone maps help show the causes and effects present in various events and situations. Fishbone maps ask and try to answer key questions such as: What are the factors that cause X? How do they interrelate? Are the factors that cause X the same as those that cause X to persist?

In the example below, you can see that these questions are posed in terms of water quality. The map attempts to account for all the variables that influence stream water quality so that, eventually, solutions can be found to maintain high quality of water in that stream.

There are certain general steps you can follow to create an effective fishbone map:

Draw the central line and box and list the problem/issue you wish to study in the “head” of the fish (right). In our example, “Stream water quality” is the issue we’re analyzing.
Next, create and label each “bone” of the “fish”. In our example, the elements that affect water quality are listed in our diagram, but you can define any categories you like for a particular problem. Typical categories include:
- The 4 M’s: Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower
- The 4 P’s: Place, Procedure, People, Policies
- The 4 S’s: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills

For each “node” (cause), think of what could be its effects and add them to the diagram. Use individual or group brainstorming to isolate the factors within each category that may be affecting the central issue.

Keep asking questions about each factor in a category to produce sub-factors. Ask the basic question, “Why is this happening?” Further facilitate the discussion by asking specific “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” and “how” questions. Try to pursue each line of causality back to its root cause. Keep asking questions until you no longer get useful information.
Consider grafting relatively empty branches onto other branches. Also, if a branch is overcrowded, consider splitting it up into separate branches.
Once you have a sufficient amount of detail, analyze the results of your fishbone diagram. Look for items that appear in more than one category. These are your most likely causes of a problem.

If you are using fishbone maps for collaborating with others, here are some further tips:

First, make sure everyone agrees on the issue/problem before beginning the diagram.
If you’re holding a meeting, position the diagram so all group members can see it and contribute. A large piece of paper, flipchart or a whiteboard that can print copies for members is ideal.
Agree on the steps to take either to collect data verifying the causes or to eliminate causes through corrective action. Spend time between meetings gathering any additional information you need. Use forms such as checklists or surveys to collect information quickly.

Fishbone maps are very useful in many situations. You (or your group) can use them to identify possible root causes of a specific condition, effect or problem. You can also use them to sort out and relate interactions affecting a particular effect or process. Or you can analyze existing problems so corrective action can be taken.

Fishbone maps provide several benefits besides identifying the root causes of problems. First, they encourage group participation and make use of group knowledge to identify causes of problem. Second, they provide an orderly, easy-to-read format to diagram cause-and-effect relationships. Third, they indicate possible causes of variation in a process. Fourth, they increase knowledge of a process by helping you and team members to learn more about the factors at work and how they relate. Fifth, they identify areas where you should collect more information for further study.

Pictorial concept maps#

These maps present information in a landscape format as shown below. The picture landscape format works well for many subjects. My example shows the cycle of water in our climate.

Wind transports moisture through the atmosphere. It condenses into clouds that then drop rain. The rain falls to the ground and runs off into a river, lake or ocean or in the form of ground water. Water then evaporates into the air, and the cycle continues.

A picture landscape format is much more effective at explaining the precipitation cycle than descriptive words because it allows viewers to see the entire cycle within a few seconds. Viewers have this image firmly planted in their minds and can then read a more detailed text explanation with greater understanding. The map also acts as a handy reference point in case readers get lost in the text and need to refer back to it to re-organize their thoughts.

There is no right or wrong way to draw a pictorial concept map. The method is fluid and creative. There are general guidelines I can provide you, however. First, of course, you must have at least a basic knowledge of the subject. That means you have to collect concepts, ideas and any other information that’s helpful in organizing your thoughts about the subject. Once you have the basic information, rough out the relationships among ideas in an initial concept map. Play with this concept map by arranging and rearranging the ideas and the relationships until you have the map that you want. Then, add the pictorial representations of the concept map elements and play with those as well. When you’re satisfied with your creation, re-draw everything into a final map.

Mandala concept maps#

The word mandala means circle or wheel in Sanskrit. Various cultures have used mandalas for centuries as sacred and meditational art forms. For the purposes of concept mapping, a mandala map is a format of interlocking geometric shapes. Perhaps the simplest and most-well known mandala is the yin-yang symbol shown on the right.

In this case, one uncomplicated mandala represents an incredible complexity of thought and belief. It can represent light and dark, good and evil, order and chaos, and many other states according to the intentions of the mandala’s creators. However, mandalas are also extremely useful for learning and education. Let’s look at a mandala from the Memletics Accelerated Learning Manual.

This mandala is a representation of the Memletic State, the state when your body and mind are in the best condition for learning. The mandala shows you visually how to learn faster and more effectively by putting your cells, body and mind into optimal condition—the Memletic State. Here are the parts of the Memletic State in text form, with the mandala on the right. Which would you prefer to use to remember all the parts?

Cell state layer: Water, Glucose, Oxygen, and Basic Nutrients
Physical State Layer: Health, Fitness, Relaxation, Environment, Sleep and Body Rhythms, and Supplements
Mental State Layer: Health, Fitness, Relaxation, Attention and Concentration, Positive Mental Attitude, and Goals.

The basic message is that to think and work well your body and mind need to be in a good state. Good cell state influences all the other elements represented in the mandala. The circle order from the inner core to the outer layers shows relative importance. Cell state is most important, then physical state, then mental state. The design of the mandala tells you that three elements are particularly important because they cut across multiple layers. Those three elements are Relaxation, Health, and Fitness. The smaller mandala further explains the main layers surrounding the core.

Mandalas allow you to pack a tremendous amount of information into images that are easy to understand and remember. They can also serve as a “touchstone” when you read text. That is, if you forget a concept or get lost among the words, you can refer back to the mandala to get your bearings and continue learning.

To create a mandala, start by placing the key concept in the center. Organize information in concentric circles around the middle. For example, in the above mandala, there are three main layers—cell state, physical state, and mental state—arranged around the key concept of the Memletic State. Once you have the initial layers done, look for relationships across those layers and then reorganize. In our example, the relationships that cross layers are relaxation, fitness, and health. Next, look for relationships within layers and reorganize again. In the Memletic State, mandala, water and oxygen are essential needs, so place them opposite each other around the central idea. Glucose and nutrients are normally from food, so you’d place them opposite each other as well around the core. These types of “links” help you remember the main ideas. Continue organizing and re-organizing until you’ve appropriately positioned and labeled all of the concepts.

Summary#

The concept maps in this module are variations on basic concept maps. They allow you great flexibility in working out ideas and the relationship between those ideas. Mind maps expand on spider maps. Mind maps have a tree structure with one trunk with many branches. They’re examples of “organic thinking”. That is, like a tree, a central idea (the trunk) branches off in many directions. These branches then divide into finer branches of details and associations. IHMC concept maps show two or more concepts linked or cross-linked by relationships. Typically, you show the main concepts at the top with subordinate concepts below them. Flowchart concept maps show how one concept or event leads to another. They provide a quick, clear explanation of a series of tasks or processes that might otherwise be difficult to understand in a plain text format. Fishbone diagrams (also called “cause and effect” or “Ishikawa” diagrams) show the interactions within complex events or phenomena. These diagrams help a person or group search for the root causes of a problem and compare the relative importance of different causes of that problem. Pictorial concept maps represent information in a landscape format. They’re useful because they allow viewers to see an entire concept or cycle at a single glance. Mandala concept maps use interlocking geometric shapes. They allow you to understand a considerable amount of information in a short amount of time. They can also serve as a “touchstone” when you read text. If you get lost in the text, you can refer back to the mandala to get your bearings and continue learning.

Exercises#

The following exercises will give you the opportunity to practice making specialized concept maps. Each exercise will spell out the type of concept map, provide the necessary information, and ask you to construct a map for the specified situation. At the back of this manual, I’ve provided the concept maps that I drew up for each exercise. Remember that my concept maps are not only the “correct” solutions. As stated previously, such maps are flexible and can be highly individual. Simply use my solutions as guides.

Exercise 1—Mind Map#

Assume you’re a businessperson who needs to place an advertisement in a print magazine. Draw a mind map that shows the considerations involved in placing the ad (design, cost, copy, reach, location etc). Remember to color code the branches to help make the options stand out to your eye.

Exercise 2—IHMC concept map#

This exercise deals with a fountain pen. The objective is to construct an IHMC map that illustrates the structure of the pen and also shows the interaction of its parts (i.e., how the ink gets to the nib and tip). Below are the elements that need to be in the map.

A fountain pen is composed of a body, cap, reservoir, and nib
The nib has a slit. This helps ink to travel down to the tip.
The nib and reservoir interact with a feedbar.
Capillary action in causes ink to run from the reservoir, down the feedbar to the slit and then to the tip.

Exercise 3—Flowchart concept map#

Assume you’re driving down the road and see that your “low fuel” indicator light has illuminated. Construct a flowchart starting with the concept: “Low fuel light indicates need to fill tank.” From that concept, create a series of Yes/No decisions from the following points:

If the tank is low, you need to drive to a petrol/service station.
If you have a remote filler cap, you need to release it. If you don’t have one, then you proceed to the next step.
If you prefer a premium grade of gas/petrol, then you need to choose that grade. If not, choose regular.
Once grade is selected, insert nozzle and squeeze handle.
Fill until desired amount shows on pump display.
Replace the nozzle, fuel cap and pay.
Tank filled. You’re ready to drive on.

Exercise 4—Decision flowchart concept map#

Assume that you’re a loan officer at a bank. You have to decide whether or not to issue a loan to an applicant. Basically, the decision is Loan/No Loan. Here’s the information to include in the map:

No one who has been bankrupt can get a loan.
If income is less than $40K, applicant can’t get a loan.
If income is $40-$80K, check applicant’s present job tenure. Less than 1 year, no loan. If 3-5 years and didn’t pay credit cards on time, no loan. If cards paid on time, loan. More than 5 years, loan.
If income is greater than $80K, applicant can get a loan

Exercise 5—Pictorial landscape concept map#

This is a weather-related exercise that may call for some research on the Internet. Assume you want to show a simple cross section of a snow-producing cloud. Here’s a hint to get you started: snow forms at the top of the cloud. Color-code each cross-section of the cloud (e.g., the top snow-producing section of the cloud is gray, warm air is red, etc.). Remember that snow is produced by the collision of warm and cold air. Include the following information:

Here’s the information to work with:

Snow is produced by the collision of warm and cold air (a warm front colliding with a low-pressure center).
Draw a weather symbol for low-pressure system.
Draw a weather symbol for warm front.
Show the low-pressure system and warm front meeting.
Draw the cloud above the low pressure and warm front symbols.
Precipitation that begins as snow in the higher level of colder air melts into rain in the layer of air that’s above the melting point of ice— O degrees Celsius.
Rain hits another layer of cold air, re-freezes into snow, and falls to the ground.
Show snow falling from the cloud.